In this study, we found that under oxidative stress, antioxidant gene expression is also partially impaired in the Δskn7 mutant but to a milder extent than in the Δchap1 mutant, whereas in the double mutant – Δchap1-Δskn7 – none of the tested selleck inhibitor genes was induced, with the exception of one catalase gene, CAT2. Both single mutants are capable of infecting the plant, showing similar virulence to the WT. The double mutant, however, showed clearly decreased virulence, pointing

to additive contributions of ChAP1 and Skn7. Possible mechanisms are discussed, including additive regulation of gene expression by oxidative stress. Histidine kinase-based phosphorelays are widespread in prokaryotes and are also found in lower eukaryotes and in plants (Wuichet et al., 2010). Some of these two-component signaling systems have important roles in stress responses. Histidine kinases respond to specific signals and are activated by autophosphorylation of a conserved histidine residue; after a cascade of phosphotransfers from His-to-Asp, the phosphoryl group is transferred to a conserved aspartate residue in the receiver domain of a response regulator. The details were worked out first for the osmotic stress response in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Fassler & West, 2011). In budding

yeast, three phosphotransfers follow activation of the membrane-localized histidine kinase Sln1: First, the conserved sensor domain histidine is phosphorylated in response to the stress signal; the phosphate is transferred to an aspartate residue, then to the phosphorelay protein Ypd1, and finally from FG-4592 manufacturer Ypd1 to either of two downstream response regulators, Ssk1 or Skn7. The response regulators’ phosphorylation levels control their activity. Osmotic stress decreases Sln1 phosphorylation, decreasing the phosphorylation of the phosphorelay Ypd1 and consequently of Ssk1. Dephosphorylation of Ssk1 allows activation of Hog1. The other branch of the pathway downstream of Sln1 is mediated by Skn7,

a highly conserved, stress-responsive transcription factor whose ZD1839 manufacturer activity depends on osmotic, cell wall and oxidative stresses. The mechanism by which Skn7 responds to these stresses is different. In response to cell wall stress, Skn7 is phosphorylated, again via Ypd1, on the conserved aspartate residue, D427, while hyperosmotic stress has the opposite effect, dephosphorylating Skn7 (Fassler & West, 2011). The Skn7 response to oxidative stress is independent of the Sln1 pathway, however. In budding yeast, Skn7 cooperates with the redox-sensitive transcription factor Yap1. Phosphorylation on the D427 residue of Skn7 is not absolutely necessary for Yap1 recruitment; rather, phosphorylation on threonine 437 is required for stabilization of the Skn7-Yap1 complex (He et al., 2009; Fassler & West, 2011).