, 2013) will further strengthen multi-proxy approaches. Biomineralisation needs to be considered in assessing past climate Bcr-Abl inhibitor variability. Unexpected mismatches between temperature proxies illustrate that we know too little about the mechanisms by which climate and environmental information is recorded. Mineralizing organisms exert specific physiological controls on the minerals they form so that the chemical behaviour of elements and isotopes

used for climate reconstruction deviates from that expected in geochemical equilibrium. These “vital effects” (Urey et al., 1951), occur in all living systems, describing an array of species-specific deviations from equilibrium compositions. Some bivalves begin the crystallization process using amorphous calcium carbonate (Jacob et al., 2008 and Jacob et al., 2011), and amorphous precursor phases appear to be universally involved in biocarbonate and bioapatite formation. This affects the storage of temperature information, which may change during the lifetime of individual organisms (Schöne et al., 2011). For all palaeoclimate reconstructions, the storage of data from individual proxies in central repositories will improve transparency MAPK Inhibitor Library and provide essential supplements to the publication of large data sets as figures. The clearing of forests to provide agricultural land may have already been widespread more than 3000 years ago (Kaplan et al., 2009),

and may have had far-reaching impacts on palaeoecology and the evolution and distribution

of plant and animal species. Much earlier, fire was used to control vegetation and may have affected species extinctions (Bowman, 1998 and Bowman et al., 2009). We need to understand how Quaternary evolution would have progressed without the influence of humans. The Quaternary was a hotbed of evolution, and the spread of humans throughout Europe coincided with its re-colonization by plants Clomifene and animals after the end of the ice age (Comes and Kadereit, 1998 and Hewitt, 1999). We also need to assess what the atmospheric composition would have been without human perturbation. This is possible for a number of trace gases such as CO2 and CH4 by analysing bubbles trapped in ice cores, but exceedingly difficult for other potent climate agents such as aerosol particles (Andreae, 2007). Modelling natural species distributions will further delineate changing ecological conditions, and may identify the beginnings of divergence of biodiversity from natural patterns. Models of niche evolution will integrate climate- and human-induced biological evolution with past environmental change, including dropping the assumption that the ecological requirements of species did not change in the relevant time span (Futuyma, 2010). The projection of ecological niches into the past will be greatly refined by improved palaeoclimate chronologies.