1 ± 0.4 mg kg−1 and 4040 ± 712 μg kg−1 for the target alkanes and PAHs, respectively, and 3.5 ± 0.1 and 1262.4 ± 578 in August 2012. The comparable numbers

in June 2013 were 1.01 ± 0.3 mg kg−1 for the targeted alkanes and 386.1 ± 202.6 μg kg−1 for the PAHs. Whitehead et al. (2012) report that an average of 1.61 ± 2.15 mg kg−1 of the same alkanes and 1556 ± 5124 μg kg−1 of PAHs caused reproductive and physiological impairments BGB324 molecular weight of marsh killifish (Fundulus grandis) in Gulf of Mexico coastal wetlands. The concentrations measured within the three years after the spill represent, therefore, a fundamental change of the oil content in these wetlands since they were oiled in 2010. We caution that if a hardy coastal wetland organism like the marsh killifish can be compromised at such low levels, then other organisms are likely susceptible to the long-term exposure to the remaining aromatics in the impacted area. The DWH disaster led to significant quantities of oil being carried inshore and deposited on Louisiana coastal wetlands in multiple oiling events. Although the baseline conditions were not pristine, the 2010 oiling event raised the average concentration of alkanes and PAHs in the sampled wetland sediments by 604 and 186 times, respectively, and some oil was still being re-distributed

throughout the estuary two years later. The concentration of alkanes is declining quickly enough that the baseline conditions for alkanes may be reached by the end of 2015. The concentration of PAHs, which are the toxic materials of concern, however, is not declining and proving resistant HIF activation to the sum of in situ decomposition, evaporation, and dilution. Further, the ratio of target PAHs: alkanes is O-methylated flavonoid not moving in the direction of recovery, and neither are the baseline ‘low’ values. It appears that the pollutant load of these

impacted wetlands has been raised significantly higher, and that it will last for many decades, if not longer. The ‘new normal’ concentration of target alkanes and PAHs are at levels that compromise, for example, the relatively hardy resident marsh minnows ( Whitehead et al., 2012). Recovery should not be assumed complete on the basis of re-vegetation of the marsh. Long-term monitoring the oil concentration in these wetlands seems warranted, at a minimum, to understand the long-term trajectory of recovery. We thank B. Adams, L. Anderson, X. Chen and R. Strecker for consultation, field assistance and general support. This research was made possible by NSF Rapid Grant DEB-1044599, and by Grants from the BP/Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative to the Northern Gulf Institute and LSU, and to the Principal Investigators of the Coastal Waters Consortium funded by the Gulf of Mexico Research Institute. The financial sources had no role in the design or execution of the study, data analysis, decision to publish, or manuscript preparation. We thank the two anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments. “
“Lima JC, Intrator O, Karuza J, et al.