EVs are potential biomarkers for detection of diseases. Total numbers and/or numbers of certain subsets of EVs in body fluids may be used to predict the presence of a disease, or a risk factor BYL719 purchase of developing a disease. Recently, increased numbers of several types of EVs were shown to increase the Framingham risk score (FRS), a risk assessment tool to estimate a patient’s

10-year risk of developing CVD.[108], [109] and [110] These results are promising and imply that more prospective studies are needed to further investigate the prognostic value of EVs in individuals at risk for CVD. In cancer patients with VTE, the coagulant activity of TF associated with MVs isolated from platelet-poor plasma is markedly increased compared to the cancer patients without VTE.[13] and [98] These findings suggest that MVs associated with coagulant TF in cancer patients may predict thrombotic events in patients at risk

of developing VTE. EGFRvIII promotes the expression of the proangiogenic protein IL-8 through the NF-κB pathway.62 EGFRvIII mRNA was present not only in resected glioma tissue but also detectable in exosomes isolated from serum of 7 out of 25 glioblastoma patients.30 Thus, measuring EGFRvIII mRNA in vesicles may provide clinically relevant information on tumor presence, tumor progression, and response to therapy. Not only blood or fractions thereof, ICG-001 solubility dmso but also other body fluids may be a useful source of vesicular biomarkers. For example, aquaporin-2, exposed by exosomes isolated from urine, may be a biomarker for renal and systemic disease.50 Exosomes isolated from urine were shown to contain Selleckchem Rucaparib the mRNA encoding two known prostate cancer biomarkers, PCA3 and TMPRSS2: ERG, and both mRNAs can be transferred to platelets.69 Thus, extraction of mRNA from urine or platelets may provide a useful means for prostate cancer diagnosis. Vesicles also offer therapeutic applications. For example, the adhesion of hematopoietic stem–progenitor cells (HSPC) to the endothelium is significantly improved in the presence of PMVs, thereby supporting engraftment after stem cell transplantation in lethally irradiated

mice.111 MVs derived from MSCs may provide a future (adjuvant) therapy for acute renal injury112 because intravenous administration of MSC-derived MVs improves the recovery of glycerol induced-acute renal injury in SCID mice.113 Exosomes from IL-10-treated immature DCs suppress inflammatory and autoimmune responses.114 This type of exosome may therefore become a suitable therapy for arthritis. Another interesting clinical application is exosome-based immunotherapy. The initial studies by using DC-derived exosomes (“dexosomes”) loaded with tumor peptides showed that “dexosomes” are capable of priming cytotoxic T cells and inducing tumor rejection in mice.115 Dexosomes also promote NK cell activation in immunocompetent mice and NK cell-dependent anti-tumor effects.