This suggests that ingestion of the mothers’ DNA, through ingestion of her immune cells and any free circulating DNA may also lead to proper immune development through a balance of concomitant exposure to immune stimulatory bacterial CpGs and immune suppressive DNA in the mothers’ genome and bacterial genomes. Conclusions Current microbiome studies characterizing Foretinib clinical trial the microbial communities of various anatomical niches have revealed vast differences between healthy individuals

[28]. These differences can often be attributed to the host’s environment and diet. As demonstrated previously by preliminary 16S rRNA sequencing, the human milk microbiome is similar to other areas of the body in that its composition is unique to each individual [17]. Milk has evolved as the first nutrient source for mammals ex utero, with a high level of Salubrinal cell line inter-mother diversity as to the proportions of bacterial genera, immune proteins and nutrients within it [29]. Perhaps, it is the diversity and/or sequences of DNA within the milk metagenome that is beneficial for infants, as Veliparib cell line opposed to any one specific bacterial genus or species. Recent reviews on human milk outline the phylotypes of bacteria within human milk, but only speculate on the function of the human milk microbiome due to a lack of data on the functional capacity of the microbes within

human milk [47, 52]. Because of this, we sought to better understand the human milk metagenome on a functional level rather than a solely phylogenetic level. The discovery of the abundance of immune suppressive DNA motifs observed within bacterial and human DNA from human milk, as well as ORFs within the human milk metagenome that allow bacteria to persist in the biological fluid provides a first glance into the functionality of the milk metagenome. Further studies should include those determining the efficacy of milk DNA to modulate the immune system in the GI tract, and a more exhaustive look at the metagenome

of human milk and how it relates to infant health outcomes. During revision of the manuscript, Everard et al published a report suggesting Akkermansia, a human mucus colonizer, helps control diet-induced obesity. Everard et al, 2013, Proc Natl Morin Hydrate Acad Sci USA doi/10.1073/pnas.1219451110. Methods Donors and sample collection Breastfeeding women (n = 10) were recruited from the Children’s Hospital of Eastern Ontario (CHEO, Ottawa, Canada) in accordance with the Research Ethics Board of CHEO and the University of Ottawa Research Ethics Board (2007303-01H). Informed consent was given by all participants, all donors were healthy, and milk was donated between 9 and 30 days postpartum. Milk samples were collected by either manual or electric breast pump expression into a sterile milk collection bag (Medela AG, Baar, Switzerland). To better represent a milk sample that would be received by the infant, breasts were not sterilized prior to collection.