The hzsB gene was identified as a proper biomarker to explore the anammox bacterial biodiversity and abundance in soil. The anammox bacteria were present throughout the soil core with the highest abundance of 2.7 × 106 hzsB copies g−1 dry soil at 40–50 cm and were not detectable below 70 cm. Sequences related to at least three species of known anammox bacteria, ‘Brocadia

anammoxidans’, ‘Brocadia fulgida’, and ‘Jettenia asiatica’ were detected. By combining the analysis of pmoA and 16S rRNA genes, the n-damo bacteria were observed to be present in 30–70 cm with abundance from see more 6.5 × 103 (60–70 cm) to 7.5 × 104 (30–40 cm) copies g−1 dry soil. The pmoA sequences retrieved from different depths closely related to each other and formed a unique clade. Our results showed that anammox and n-damo bacteria co-occurred in the paddy soil. Both of them were abundant in deep layers (30–60 cm) and the community structures changed along depths in the soil core. Ammonium () and methane (CH4) were previously assumed to be DNA Damage inhibitor inert under anoxic conditions

(Strous & Jetten, 2004; Jetten, 2008). This understanding was gradually changed by the discoveries of anaerobic ammonium oxidation (anammox) (Van de Graaf et al., 1995; Strous et al., 1999) and nitrite-dependent anaerobic methane oxidation (n-damo) (Raghoebarsing et al., 2006; Ettwig et al., 2009, 2010) in which and CH4 were oxidized anaerobically using nitrite as the electron acceptor. With the development of Paclitaxel molecular biomarkers (Kuypers et al., 2003; Schmid et al., 2005, 2008; Li et al., 2010, 2011; Li & Gu, 2011), anammox bacteria have been detected in many marine ecosystems (Kuypers et al., 2003; Byrne et al., 2009), freshwater ecosystems (Zhang et al., 2007; Zhu et al., 2010), and man-made environments (Quan et al., 2008; Zhu et al., 2011a). Using the isotopic pairing technology, anammox has been identified as an important process in the aquatic nitrogen

cycle, accounting for as much as 13% of N2 production in freshwater Lake Tanganyika (Schubert et al., 2006) and 67% in marine environments (Thamdrup & Dalsgaard, 2002). Although recently anammox bacteria were enriched from a peat soil (Hu et al., 2011), relative little is known about the distribution of anammox bacteria in soil ecosystems because of the lack of suitable primers for quantitative PCR assays and high interfering background in fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) analyses by soil matrix components. Hydrazine synthase is a key enzyme in the anammox metabolism, consisting of three subunits encoded by the genes hzsA, hzsB, and hzsC (Strous et al., 2006; Kartal et al., 2011; Harhangi et al., 2012), responsible for the synthesis of hydrazine from nitric oxide and ammonium (Kartal et al., 2011). Previously, the hzsA gene was used as an anammox phylomarker (Harhangi et al., 2012).

In the present study, however, we did not detect any practice-related changes in IHI. Methodological differences between our experiments and those of previous study could account for our different findings. In the present study we investigated changes in the IHI targeting the untrained motor cortex after a simple ballistic motor learning task, while previous studies examined different tasks, involving force production (Shim et al., 2005) check details or motor sequence learning, i.e. the serial reaction time task (Perez et al., 2007; Camus et al., 2009).

It is therefore possible that the variable cognitive load or attentional demand involved in different forms of motor learning may influence the results. Additionally, the lack of change in IHI could be due to other specific features of the present experiment, such as the relatively short

duration of the motor task. In this regard it is worth noting that Hortobágyi et al. (2011) observed a less profound IHI after 1000 submaximal voluntary contractions of the FDI. Finally, an alternative hypothesis is that our results were influenced by the constant isometric force produced by the left hand during training, as volitional activity in one hand can modulate IHI in the homologous muscle of the contralateral limb (Giovannelli et al., 2009; Hinder et al., 2010). In theories of optimal Akt inhibitor motor control (Todorov, 2004), the motor system attempts to achieve a desired level of performance at minimal cost. In the present experiments we might then speculate why motor training leads to reduced EMG mirroring, as it has no direct effect on the task itself, which is to increase acceleration of the opposite hand. One possible explanation is that it is a result of a very generalized ‘cost function’, which is to minimize all activity associated with the task, whether it is relevant or irrelevant to task performance. Effectively this would reduce all overflow of activity that was not relevant to the task. Another explanation is that reduced EMG mirroring is secondary to

the motor system’s attempts to maximize some other, task-relevant, function, such as focussing the motor command onto only those motor outputs that are strictly required to produce the required movement. The present study specifically examined the effects of brief motor practice on EMG mirroring, and therefore we do not know the extent to which the Phosphoprotein phosphatase effects would carry over to other stages of motor learning, such as consolidation (Brashers-Krug et al., 1996; Muellbacher et al., 2002) or long-term retention (Reis et al., 2009), or whether practice-related changes of EMG mirroring in one hand are associated with similar changes in the untrained as well as in the trained hand, a phenomenon referred to as intermanual transfer (Perez et al., 2007; Camus et al., 2009). It is also important to note that in the present study we adopted a simple, ballistic movement of the finger with no real requirements for accuracy, just acceleration.

All efforts should be made to involve the woman’s GP and health visitor. It may be necessary to involve some of the following: patient advocates, social workers, legal advocacy, clinical psychologists, Ivacaftor psychiatrists, counsellors, health advisors, Citizens Advice Bureau workers, interpreters, community midwives, clinical nurse specialists and health visitors [4]. In settings with relatively few HIV-positive pregnant women, it is still important to develop robust pathways of care with identified members of an MDT. Regular links, formal or informal, can also be established with a larger unit to provide advice and support as

necessary. Good communication is vital in view of the complexity of the issues involved. An early assessment of the social circumstances of a newly diagnosed HIV-positive woman is important. Patients who initially refuse interventions or default from follow-up need to be identified and actively followed-up. Support by trained peer-support workers is a valuable component of the management of HIV-positive pregnant women. Many newly diagnosed Y-27632 in vivo HIV-positive pregnant women are initially reluctant to engage with peer support; however, the great majority of women who do engage

with it find that it becomes one of the most highly valued of all the interventions that they undertake [5]. The importance of informing appropriate healthcare workers should be emphasized. This includes midwives, general practitioners, health visitors and paediatricians. The process of in-patient care should be explained clearly, so that the women can be helped

to inform ward staff explicitly about levels of disclosure to visitors. Depending on the setting, levels of disclosure of newly diagnosed pregnant women about their HIV status vary, and there are cultural factors that influence the patterns of self-disclosure to partners and other social network members [4, 6]. Disclosure should be encouraged in all cases but selleck screening library may be viewed as a process that may take some time [7, 8]. There are situations where a newly diagnosed HIV-positive woman refuses to disclose to a current sexual partner, or appears to want to delay disclosure indefinitely. This can give rise to very complex professional, ethical, moral and, potentially, legal situations. There is a conflict between the duty of confidentiality to the index patient and a duty to prevent harm to others. Breaking confidentiality to inform a sexual partner of the index patient’s positive HIV status is sanctioned as a ‘last resort’ by the WHO [9] and General Medical Council [10]. However, it is not to be taken lightly as it could have the negative impact of deterring others from testing because of the fear of forced disclosure and loss of trust by patients in the confidential doctor–patient relationship.

[21] Estimates of the number of Chinese workers in Africa range from over 100,000 to 500,000.[22] Given these estimates and the high attack rates for non-immune travelers even to single well-defined exposures, it is possible that the number of Chinese migrant workers exposed to schistosomiasis in Africa may run into thousands. In addition to the clinical impact of undiagnosed chronic schistosomiasis among these Ganetespib chemical structure exposed workers, there are also potential public health implications. Many of these workers come from rural areas, where the environmental impact of introducing African schistosomes into local

rivers and lakes is unknown. Schistosoma japonicum remains endemic in several provinces of China, but whether the snail vectors for S. japonicum would serve as successful intermediate hosts to S. haematobium is simply not known. As China’s economy continues to grow over the next several decades, and business relationships strengthen, travel volumes are likely to increase, raising the cumulative event rate for even low likelihood public health risks. Reports from China such as the ones by Yi[15] and by Wang in this issue serve

an important role in raising NVP-BKM120 awareness of the potential risk among Chinese travelers who have returned from Africa. The questions raised here highlight the importance of continuing to develop travel medicine expertise and research in Asia. The author states she has no conflicts of interest to declare. “
“Background. Diarrhea is the most common illness among travelers and expatriates

in Nepal. Published data on the etiology of travelers’ diarrhea (TD) in Nepal are over 13 years old and no prior data exist on antibiotic susceptibility for currently used drugs. We investigated the etiology of diarrhea and antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of bacterial pathogens and compared the results to previous work from the Edoxaban same clinical setting. Methods. A total of 381 cases and 176 controls were enrolled between March 2001 and 2003 in a case-control study. Enrollees were over age 18 years from high socioeconomic countries visiting or living in Nepal. Stool samples were assessed by microbiologic, molecular identification, and enzyme immunoassay (EIA) methods, and antimicrobial susceptibility was determined by disk diffusion. Risk factors were assessed by questionnaires. Results. At least one enteropathogen was identified in 263 of 381 (69%) cases and 47 of 176 (27%) controls (p≤ 0.001). Pathogens significantly detected among cases were Campylobacter (17%), enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) (15%), Shigella (13%), and Giardia (11%). Cyclospora was detected only in cases (8%) mainly during monsoon season. Although 71% of Campylobacter isolates were resistant to ciprofloxacin, 80% of bacterial isolates overall were sensitive to either ciprofloxacin or azithromycin while 20% were intermediately sensitive or resistant.

Maceration during

alcoholic fermentation was achieved by punching down fermentation caps three times per day. The residual glucose–fructose concentration was monitored on a daily basis with a balling meter. When residual glucose–fructose levels were approximately 10 g L−1 (sixth day), the wines were hydraulically pressed (2 bar) from grape skins. The pressed wine (4.4 L) including lees was dispensed into 4.5-L glass jars equipped with fermentation airlocks and fermentation was allowed to proceed to dryness (residual sugar ≤1.95 g L−1). Racking entailed that wines from each fermentation were carefully siphoned-off (avoiding lees sediment carryover), sulphited to 40 g mL−1 (free sulphur) and bottled (5 × 750-mL dark green glass bottles). Putative wild-type and transgenic yeast populations from completed wine fermentations were established by plating out Autophagy Compound Library research buy 100 μL of a dilution series onto YEPD plates containing 25 mg L−1 kanamycin sulphate (Roche, Germany) and 30 mg L−1 chloramphenicol (Sigma-Aldrich, MO). After incubation at 30 °C for 2–3 days, colonies representing see more putative transgenic yeast strains were randomly selected from plates (25 colonies per replicate sample) and assessed

for their resistance to SM, flocculation ability (HSP30p-FLO5 transformants) or lack of invasiveness (HSP30p-FLO11 transformants). Genomic DNA isolated from 25 colonies per replicate sample, putative wild-type BM45 and VIN13 isolates were S. cerevisiae strain-typed using PCR with primers that are specific for δ sequences (Ness et al., 1993). Isolated genomic DNA from S. cerevisiae BM45, EC1118, NT50, VIN13 and WE372 industrial wine yeast wild-type strains served as controls. The lees component (5 mL aliquots) from individual check details batch fermentations was washed three times with an equal volume of sterile 0.9% saline and stored at −20 °C for flocculation and sedimentation analysis. The lees was recovered by centrifugation and resuspended in 50 mL 100 mM EDTA by vigorous vortexing. Thereafter, the faster

settling amorphous solid debris was allowed to sediment for 20–30 min and the fraction containing only suspended yeast cells was recovered from just below the meniscus. Microscopic evaluation of cellular fractions determined whether extractions were to be repeated. Filter-sterilized Merlot must [24.4% sugar (glucose and fructose), 6 g L−1 titratable acidity and pH 5.2] was sulphited to 40 mg L−1 was prepared as described above. Yeast precultures in YEPD were prepared and processed as described previously (Govender et al., 2008). The flocculation potentials of wild-type and transgenic yeast strains were assessed in small-scale aerobic shake-flask experiments at 27 °C using 100 mL aliquots of filter-sterilized Merlot must. Small-scale batch alcoholic fermentation of 100 mL aliquots of filter-sterilized Merlot must were performed by the inoculation of preacclimatized yeast cell populations at a density of 2 × 106 cells mL−1.

In the week 192 analysis, there

was no statistically significant difference in VF rate between treatment arms, with overall superiority the result of more discontinuations because of AEs in the LPV/r group. Sensitivity analyses and analyses by baseline stratification factors have shown the virological response results to be robust and consistent. The statistical superiority of DRV/r over LPV/r in the subset of patients with high baseline HIV-1 RNA levels (≥ 100 000 copies/mL) highlights the potency of DRV, given that it is generally selleck inhibitor considered that this is a subset of patients in whom it is more difficult to achieve complete virological suppression [10, 11]. Superiority (≥ 200 cells/μL) or noninferiority (< 200 cells/μL) in virological response was also observed SB525334 according to the CD4 cell count stratification factor. In an analysis where patients were censored out after they discontinued for any reason other than VF, the virological response rate remained higher in the DRV/r arm compared with the LPV/r arm. The statistical superiority, demonstrated at week 192, does also

appear to have been influenced by better tolerability and fewer discontinuations in the DRV/r treatment arm, thus showing safety to be an important contributor to outcome, in addition to antiviral activity. The percentage of self-reported adherent patients (> 95% adherent to PI use) ranged from 82.0 to 89.4% for DRV/r and from 78.3 to 86.1% for LPV/r across time-points up to week 192; there was no statistically significant difference between the treatment groups with

respect to the percentage of adherent patients up to the 192-week endpoint. Statistical superiority of DRV/r over LPV/r was shown in the adherent subgroup (73.3% vs. 61.1%, respectively). The sample PAK5 size of the suboptimally adherent subgroups was relatively limited and therefore any conclusions based on such data should be viewed cautiously. Other long-term studies involving treatment-naïve patients have compared other PIs with LPV/r. The 144-week KLEAN study [12] demonstrated noninferiority in virological response (HIV-1 RNA < 50 copies/mL; ITT-TLOVR) of fosamprenavir/r plus an optimized background regimen (OBR) compared with LPV/r plus an OBR. The 96-week CASTLE study [13] compared atazanavir (ATV/r) 300/100 mg once daily with LPV/r 400/100 mg twice daily (both with fixed-dose TDF/FTC 300/200 mg once daily), where ATV/r was shown to be noninferior to LPV/r in virological response (HIV-1 RNA < 50 copies/mL; ITT-TLOVR). The ARTEMIS study has shown not only noninferiority, but also superiority of DRV/r compared with LPV/r in virological response over a longer time period (192 weeks). The efficacy and safety of DRV/r in treatment-naïve patients are to be compared with those of ATV/r or raltegravir, each with TDF/FTC as the background regimen, in a comparative trial (ARDENT; NCT00811954).

This antiserum binds to a chitinase at the conidial surface (Boldo et al., 2009), and 86.5% (1972±166.7) of the conidia adhered before Selleckchem Bortezomib washing while 106% (1712±177) adhered afterwards. When the wings were treated with the recombinant GAPDH, the adhesion decreased to 31% (697.7±132.4) and 11% (254.3±41.37) (P<0.0001) before and after washing, respectively. Again, to exclude unspecific blocking of the adhesion by the protein

wing treatment, we used BSA as a control. In this case, adhesion was 96% (2205±207.8) and 122% (1974±120.4) before and after washing, respectively (Fig. 6). In order to study the possible participation of GAPDH in adhesion to the host, we isolated and characterized the M. anisopliae GAPDH gene and protein. The deduced amino acid sequence from the cDNA and from the gene was confirmed by MS identification with the major native protein form (36 kDa, pI 7.0) isolated from 2-D gel electrophoresis of mycelial

M. anisopliae protein extract. The other two protein isoforms (36 kDa, pIs 6.6 and 6.8) recognized by immunodetection using the P. brasiliensis anti-GAPDH serum led us to infer GAPDH isoform identity. A multiple isoform pattern could suggest different functions for each isoform, as found in other systems (Barbosa et al., 2004; Benndorf et al., 2008). GAPDH in M. anisopliae revealed regulated transcription and translation patterns in response to different carbon Everolimus concentration sources. In Mucor circinelloides, the orthologous gpdh1 gene was also shown to have a well-defined transcription pattern that is primarily regulated in response to the

carbon source by a mechanism that includes a negative regulator (Larsen et al., 2004). The behavior of gpdh1 gene transcription in M. anisopliae in response to different carbon sources led us to infer that glycerol and ethanol are assimilated directly by the citric acid cycle pathway and the oxidative phosphorylation chain. Because of the lack of glucose in these experiments, the gpdh1 gene transcripts Dynein were strongly repressed. The patterns of gpdh1 transcripts confirm that aerobic metabolism prevails in M. anisopliae as would be expected if aerobic metabolism prevails in M. anisopliae as well as other filamentous fungi such as Trichoderma reesei (Chambergo et al., 2002). A well-known mechanism of carbon-catabolism gene tuning in response to the available substrate is the carbon catabolite repression that was observed in Aspergillus nidulans. When this fungus is grown on complex substrates containing both metabolically favorable carbon sources (such as glucose) and less favorable ones (such as ethanol and glycerol), it is able to repress the genes involved in the utilization of the less favorable carbon. An important regulatory protein controlling carbon repression in A. nidulans is CreA (Mogensen et al., 2006). In M. anisopliae, repression occurs by CRR1 (Screen et al., 1997), the CreA ortholog. A marked decrease in gpdh1 transcript accumulation in total RNA extracted from M.

Within anisochronous sequences, the maximum is located in the right middle frontal gyrus. Table 3 displays the MNI coordinates for the maxima in all conditions, and for the selected contrasts. In the N1 window, a main effect of stimulus type was found for both first and repeated deviant tones. First deviant tones significantly differed from standard tones: F1,14 = 13.382, P < 0.01, η2 = 0.489. The response to standard tones (mean = 0.595 μV, SE = 0.281 μV) was more positive than the first deviant tone response (mean = −0.055 μV, SE = 0.333 μV). Repeated deviant tones also significantly differed GS-1101 nmr from standard tones: F1,14 = 8.085, P = 0.013, partial η2 = 0.366.

The response to standard tones was more positive than the repeated deviant tone response (mean = −0.162 μV, SE = 0.234 μV). In the N2 window, the main effects of stimulus type and temporal regularity were found for both first and repeated deviant tones. First deviant tones significantly buy PLX-4720 differed from standard tones: F1,14 = 75.760, P < 0.001, η2 = 0.844. The response to first deviant tones (mean = −1.258 μV, SE = 0.598 μV)

was more negative than the standard tone response (mean = 1.012 μV, SE = 0.499 μV). Tones delivered within isochronous sequences significantly differed from those delivered within anisochronous sequences: F1,14 = 30.533, P < 0.001, η2 = 0.686. The responses recorded to temporally regular tones (mean = −0.406 μV, SE = 0.541 μV) were more negative than those recorded to temporally irregular tones (mean = 0.161 μV, SE = 0.534 μV). Repeated deviant tones significantly differed from standard tones: F1,14 = 21.579, P < 0.001, η2 = 0.607. The response to repeated deviant tones (mean = −0.098 μV, SE = 0.523 μV) was more negative than the standard tone response. Here too, tones delivered within

isochronous sequences significantly differed from those delivered within anisochronous sequences: F1,14 = 13.216, P < 0.01, η2 = 0.486. The responses Mirabegron recorded to temporally regular tones (mean = 0.245 μV, SE = 0.491 μV) were less positive than those recorded to temporally irregular tones (mean = 0.669 μV, SE = 0.509 μV; see the control experiment section of Table 1 for the omnibus anova results). In slow stimulation sequences, temporal regularity appears to cause a shift of deviant and standard ERPs towards more negative values. Table 2 (control experiment section) shows the relevant omnibus anova results. Notably, the response to repeated deviant tones was not modulated by either temporal regularity or repetition probability. The comparison between first and repeated MMN yielded only a main effect of repetition: F1,14 = 14.541, P < 0.01, η2 = 0.509. The response to deviant repetitions (mean = −1.110, SE = 0.239) was always attenuated compared with first deviant tone response (mean = −2.270, SE = 0.261).

Thus, we propose that the enhanced surround inhibition shortly after visual cortical lesions may prevent hyperexcitability

in the sSC local circuit, contributing to reconstructing the finely tuned receptive field organization of sSC neurons after the visual cortical lesions. “
“Neuroimaging studies of humans have provided inconsistent evidence with respect to the response properties of the fusiform face area (FFA). It has been claimed PLX4032 purchase that neural populations within this region are sensitive to subtle differences between individual faces only when they are perceived as distinct identities [P. Rotshtein et al. (2005)Nature Neuroscience, 8, 107–113]. However, sensitivity to subtle changes of identity was found in previous studies using unfamiliar faces, for which categorical perception is less pronounced. Using functional magnetic resonance adaptation and morph continua of personally familiar faces, we investigated sensitivity to subtle changes between faces that were located either on the same or opposite sides of a categorical perceptual boundary. We found no Ferroptosis inhibition evidence for categorical perception within the FFA, which exhibited reliable sensitivity to subtle changes of face identity whether these were perceived as distinct identities, or not. On the contrary, both the posterior superior temporal sulcus and prefrontal cortex exhibited

categorical perception, as subtle changes between faces perceived as different identities yielded larger release from adaptation than those perceived as the same identity. These observations suggest that, whereas the FFA discriminates subtle physical changes

of personally familiar faces, other regions encode faces in a categorical fashion. “
“Specialized populations of choroid plexus epithelial cells have previously been shown to be responsible for the Idoxuridine transfer of individual plasma proteins from blood to the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), contributing to their characteristically high concentrations in CSF of the developing brain. The mechanism of this protein transfer remains elusive. Using a marsupial, Monodelphis domestica, we demonstrate that the albumin-binding protein SPARC (osteonectin/BM-40/culture-shock protein) is present in a subset of choroid plexus epithelial cells from its first appearance, throughout development, and into adulthood. The synthesis of SPARC by the lateral ventricular plexus was confirmed with real-time PCR. The expression level of SPARC was higher in plexuses of younger than older animals. Western blot analysis of the gene product confirmed the quantitative PCR results. The co-localization of SPARC and albumin shown by immunocytochemistry and its cellular location indicate that this glycoprotein may act as a recognition site for albumin. In addition, the numbers of SPARC-immunopositive cells and its expression were responsive to experimental changes of albumin concentration in the blood.

We also isolated and characterized the filament–hook–basal body of the polar flagellum. The proteins in this structure were analyzed by MS. Eight internal

sequences matched with known flagellar proteins. The comparison of these sequences with the protein database from the complete genome of V. shilonii allows us to conclude that some components of the polar flagellum are encoded in two different clusters of flagellar genes, suggesting that this bacterium has a complex flagellar system, more complex possibly than other Vibrio species reported so far. Motility provides a survival advantage under a wide variety of environments, allowing bacteria to compete successfully for nutrients. Hence, microorganisms have developed a multiplicity of motility systems that allow them to move about in liquid or viscous media and over BIBW2992 datasheet surfaces. Bacteria and Archaea use flagella for locomotion. These are highly complex and efficient structures that not only propel the cell but also play an important role in biofilm formation, adhesion to surfaces and contribute to the virulence process in pathogenic species (for a review, see Kirov, 2003). The bacterial flagellum is formed by a helical filament, which is attached to the cell through a flexible joint known as the hook. The hook Selleck Galunisertib is connected to a complex structure known as the basal body that

spans the inner membrane, the cell wall and the outer membrane (for a review, see Berg, 2003). A limited number of bacteria possess dual flagellar systems, a polar flagellum for swimming in liquid medium and lateral flagella for swarming that involves translocation on solid surfaces. In various species of Gram-negative marine Vibrio such as Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Vibrio alginolyticus and Vibrio harveyi, the single-sheathed polar flagellum is constitutive whereas lateral flagella are inducible. However, this is not a general trait for the genus because Vibrio vulnificus, Vibrio anguillarum, Vibrio fisheri and Vibrio Casein kinase 1 cholerae do not possess a lateral flagellar system (for a review, see McCarter, 2001, 2004; Merino et al.,

2006). Induction of lateral flagella occurs in response to growth on surfaces or highly viscous media; this process is mediated apparently by the sodium-driven polar flagellar motor, which acts as a mechanosensor (Belas et al., 1986; McCarter et al., 1988; Kawagishi et al., 1996; Merino et al., 2006). Upon an increase in viscosity or contact with a surface, rotation of the polar flagellum is hindered and cells differentiate into swarmer cells. In some species, swarmer cells are elongated, multinucleated and hyperflagellated, such as V. parahaemolyticus, Proteus mirabilis and Serratia liquefaciens (Harshey, 1994; Eberl et al., 1999). In contrast, Aeromonas spp. and Azospirillum spp. do not show cell elongation (Merino et al., 2006). Rotation of the flagellar motor is powered by transmembrane ion gradients in V.