VEGF (NM_001025250.2) forward: 5′-CCA CGA CAG AAG GAG AGC A-3′ and reverse: 5′-AAT CGG ACG GCA GTA GCT T-3′ 80 bp. IL-6 (NM_031168.1) forward: 5′-TCT CTG GGA AAT CGT GGA CP-690550 datasheet A-3′ and reverse: 5′-TCT GCA AGT GCA TCA TCG T-3′ 81 bp. IL-1β (NM_008361.3) forward: 5′-GTT GAC GGA CCC CAA AAG-3′ and reverse: 5′-GTG CTG CTG CGA GAT TTG-3′ 93 bp. IL-10 (NM_010548.1) forward: 5′-TCCCTGGGTGAGAAGCTG-3′ and reverse: 5′-GCTCCACTGCCTTGCTCT-3′ 91 bp. Caspase-3 (NM_009810.2) forward: 5′-TAC CGG TGG AGG CTG ACT-3′ and reverse:

5′-GCT GCA AAG GGA CTG GAT-3′ 104 bp. TGF-β (NM_021578.2) forward: 5′-ATA CGC CTG AGT GGC TGT C-3′ and reverse: 5′-GCC CTG TAT TCC GTC TCC T-3′ 77 bp. HGF (NM_010427.3) forward: 5′-GCC AGA AAG ATA TCC CGA CA-3′ and reverse: 5′-CTT CTC CTT GGC CTT GAA TG-3′ 197 bp. 36B4–Rplp0 (NM_007475.5) forward: 5′-CAA CCC AGC TCT GGA GAA AC-3′ and reverse: 5′-GTT CTG AGC TGG CAC AGT GA-3′ 150 bp. The normality of the data (Kolmogorov–Smirnov test with Lilliefors’ correction) and the homogeneity of variances

(Levene median test) were tested. If both conditions were satisfied, differences between the Sham and CLP groups at day 1 were assessed by two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s test. Since no difference was observed between Sham-SAL and Sham-BMDMC at days 1 and 7 we decided to present only one time point. The comparison between CLP-SAL and CLP-BMDMC groups at days 1 and 7 was performed using one-way ANOVA or one-way ANOVA on ranks for parametric and non-parametric data, respectively. Survival curves were derived by the Kaplan–Meier method and compared by log rank test. Data are presented as mean ± standard error of Gefitinib cell line mean or median (25th–75th percentiles) as appropriate. A p value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Statistical analyses were done with SigmaStat 3.1 (Jandel Scientific, San Rafael, CA, USA). The following subpopulations were identified from the pool of intravenously injected BMDMCs characterized by flow cytometry: total

lymphocyte (CD45+/CD11b−/CD29−/CD34− = 4.2%), dipyridamole T lymphocyte (CD45+/CD3+/CD34−=2.1%), T helper lymphocyte (CD3+/CD4+/CD8− = 0.5%), T cytotoxic lymphocyte (CD3+/CD4−/CD8+ = 1.6%), monocytes (CD45+/CD29+/CD14+/CD11b−/CD34−/CD3− = 2.8%), neutrophils (CD45+/CD11b+/CD34−/CD29−/CD14−/CD3− = 78.7%), hematopoietic progenitors (CD34+/CD45+ = 0.5%), and other progenitors cells (CD45− = 9.1%). At day 7, the survival rate of Sham-SAL and Sham-BMDMC mice was 100%. All animals from the CLP-SAL group died within 48 h after sepsis induction. Therefore, we were unable to provide data for CLP-SAL group at day 7. Survival at days 1 and 7 was higher in the CLP-BMDMC compared to CLP-SAL group (75% vs. 60% and 70% vs. 0%, respectively, P < 0.001) ( Fig. 2). Est,L was higher in CLP-SAL animals compared with Sham-SAL at day 1. BMDMCs led to a significant reduction in Est,L at day 1, whereas at day 7 this reduction was more pronounced ( Fig.

Soil samples for the chemical analysis were cored through the top 20 cm at five randomly selected points in each plot using an Oakfield soil sampler, Fond du Lac, WI. These samples were air dried, passed through a 2-mm sieve, and used for the soil chemical analyses. Soil pH (1:5 soil:water suspension) was measured using a glass electrode. The Nintedanib manufacturer carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) content in the soil were determined using an elemental analyzer (CE Instruments EA1110, Thermo Quest Italia S.P.A., Radano, Italy). Available phosphorus (P), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and potassium (K) were determined by inductively coupled plasma (Perkin Elmer Optima 5300, Waltham, MA, USA) using the standard method

recommended by the National Institute of Agricultural Science and Technology [8]. The data were LY294002 analyzed

using the general linear model procedure using SAS version 9.1 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA) to determine the significant difference (p < 0.05) of cultivation sites by stand site types and by elevation. The treatment means were compared using Duncan's test [9]. Mountain-cultivated ginseng was cultivated in three natural and three artificial forests with six different overstory stand types: deciduous broad-leaved forests with Carpinus laxiflora, Quercus spp., Acer mono, Prunus sargentii; Cornus controversa: thirteen plots; P. densiflora: eight plots; mixed forests of P. densiflora and Quercus spp.: three plots; L. leptolepis plantation: four plots; Chamaecyparis obtuse plantation: one plot; and Pinus koraiensis plantation: one plot ( Table 1). The soil bulk density was significantly higher for the P. densiflora stand sites (0.96 g/cm3) than for the L. leptolepis stand sites (0.69 g/cm3). Among the three phases of the soil, there was a significantly higher

proportion of the liquid phase for the deciduous broad-leaved (34.0%) and mixed stand sites (34.6%) than for the P. densiflora stand sites (18.8%), but the air phase was Fossariinae reversely related to the liquid phase ( Fig. 1). The soil pH was not significantly different among stand sites, although the soil pH in the mixed stand sites was 0.1–0.2 units higher compared with that of the other stand sites. The soil pH was highest on average in the mixed stand sites (pH 4.55), followed by a pH 4.46 for the P. densiflora stand sites, pH 4.36 for the deciduous broad-leaved stand sites, and pH 4.35 for the L. leptolepis stand sites ( Fig. 2). All of the stands were strongly acidified, with a soil pH below 4.55. The organic C and total N content were significantly higher for the deciduous broad-leaved stand sites (C: 6.16%; N: 0.44%) than for the P. densiflora (C: 2.64%; N: 0.19%) stand sites. The C/N ratio ranged from 12.8 to 16.5, with the highest value of 16.5 in P. densiflora stand sites. The available P was low in all of the stand sites.

Chlorophyll extract was measured as fluorescence and converted to concentration using spinach extract standards. Rock surface area was determined by water volume displacement ( Cooper and Testa, 2001) and epilithic algal biomass reported as μg Chl a cm−2 rock. Leaf material

was processed within a few days of collection to determine mass loss and fungal colonization from each stream site. Leaves were removed from each bag and gently rinsed with deionized water to remove sandy debris. From each leaf bag, ergosterol content (as an indication of fungal biomass) and organic leaf decay rates were determined. Ergosterol concentration (μg Ergosterol mg−1 ash-free dry weight (AFDW) leaf) was measured from 30 haphazardly collected hole punches of leaf tissue. Ergosterol was extracted from leaf punches by incubating in methanol for 2 h followed Navitoclax cost by potassium hydroxide hydrolysis at 80 °C (Newell et al., 1988). Next, sterols were isolated through a pentane extraction at 21 °C. Pentane soluble sterol extracts were dried under a constant stream of N2 gas and re-dissolved in methanol for high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis. The separation module (Waters 2695) injected 100 μl of solution through the column (Novapak C18) at a rate of 1.5 ml min−1. The Waters 2998 detector was set

at an absorbance of 282λ. Retention times and concentrations were compared to a pure ergosterol standard (Fluka HPLC grade > 95%; Newell et al., 1988). For leaf loss rates, leaves were dried in an oven at 60 °C until constant weight was reached. Leaf weights were corrected for the 30

Selleck Veliparib hole punches taken for ergosterol. Dry leaves were ground and a subsample taken to determine AFDW (i.e., leaf organic content) by ashing in a muffle oven for 5 h at 550 °C. Sugar maple leaf decay rates (k) were calculated for each point using the negative natural log of the percent AFDW remaining at the end of the incubation ( Petersen and Cummins, 1974). Dissolved O2 and N2 concentrations from leaf incubations were determined using membrane inlet mass spectrometry (MIMS) from N2:Ar and O2:Ar ratios (Kana et al., 1994). Ar ratios were converted to concentrations using gas saturated water standards at 20 and 30 °C http://www.selleck.co.jp/products/lonafarnib-sch66336.html and by applying Henry’s law with published gas constants for Ar, N2, and O2 (Lide and Frederikse, 1995 and Wilhelm et al., 1977). O2 and N2 flux rates were calculated as the difference between initial and final gas concentrations divided by the incubation time. Leaf biofilm oxygen consumption (e.g., O2 uptake; R) and denitrification rates (e.g., N2 flux) were expressed as μg gas h−1 g−1 AFDW leaf. Prior to analysis, parameters were grouped as follows: (1) landscape, (2) water quality, (3) DOM characteristics, and (4) benthic. One N2 flux measurement was removed as an outlier prior to analysis because this point had a z-score < −4 (i.e., greater than 4 standard deviations way from the mean) and poor analytical reproducibility on multiple sample injections.

, 2010). Demand increased exponentially with the number of tourists, worsening the existing heavy pressure on forest resources. Similar processes have been observed in other Himalayan regions of India (Awasthi Inhibitor Library et al., 2003 and Chettri et al., 2002), and Bhutan (Brunet et al., 2001). The tourism boost at SNPBZ also affected the size and composition of livestock herds (Padoa-Schioppa and Baietto, 2008). Together with the traditional yak, Sherpas started to breed more Zopkyos (a yak/cow hybrid), widely used as a pack animal for trekkers and mountaineers (Stevens, 2003). The increased number of Zopkyos intensified pressure on forest regeneration and grasslands by overgrazing,

mainly in the lower valleys and near villages and trekking routes. Forest grazing has been practiced in rural areas of Nepal for a long time and is currently identified as one of

the most important factors of forest degradation (MFSC, 1988, UNCED, 1992 and Tamrakar, 2003). Livestock trampling reduces the porosity of the soil and hampers plant establishment and growth, exposing the soil to an increasing risk of erosion and landslides (Ghimire et al., 2013). In the SNPBZ, the current use of forest-related resources and its effects on forests have been strongly affected by the lack of strategic management plans. Forest exploitation thus appears to be largely unsustainable and urgently needs to be regulated. After two decades of forest biomass decline, immediate restoration actions should be applied to increase forest resilience Akt inhibitor and eventually move toward sustainability. Sustainable harvesting of forest products has several ecological but also socio-economic implications, strictly related to local wood extraction Carnitine dehydrogenase and management practices, and population needs (Cunningham, 2001 and Ticktin, 2004). Defining sustainable management practices implies the understanding of plant and forest ecology within the local socio-economic context and use of wood products (Rijal and Meilby, 2012). A good example of sustainable management that resulted in a reduction

of wood extraction is the Annapurna Conservation Area, where a community-based forest conservation approach was introduced (Bajracharya et al., 2005 and Bajracharya et al., 2006). To avoid depleting the current growing stock of the SNPBZ forests, 75% of the fuelwood should be replaced by alternative energy sources (Salerno et al., 2010). International research projects aimed at promoting the use of solar panels, small wind and hydropower plants, and waste management are ongoing (Manfredi et al., 2010). The use of adaptive silvicultural practices calibrated for improving local quality of life without degrading the forests (Carter, 1996, Malla, 1997 and Stræde et al., 2002) could be a first step toward the development of effective management plans that could positively affect the sustainability of forest exploitation.

These ‘greater good’ vignettes thus directly pit an explicit utilitarian action promoting the greater good against a narrower, more partial moral view that allows us to give priority to self, family, and country. Palbociclib mw Moreover, in this study the standard sacrificial dilemmas were compared to similarly presented vignettes, addressing the possibility that prior results were partly influenced by differences in the way moral questions were presented across stimuli. In line with our prior findings, we predicted that ‘utilitarian’ judgments in sacrificial dilemmas would be negatively correlated

with genuinely utilitarian judgments in these new vignettes, and that this correlation would be driven by the antisocial dimension of sacrificial ‘utilitarian’ judgments. We again further predicted that there would be no correlation between these two sets of judgments once this antisocial dimension was controlled for. Study 4 included one additional measure. The new vignettes, as well as the measures employed in the prior studies, assessed concern for the greater good only at an abstract or hypothetical level—asking in Study 2, for example, how much

of a hypothetical bonus participants would be willing to donate to charity. In Study 4 we added a measure of actual altruistic ALK activation behavior aiming to promote the greater good, by offering participants the option of donating part of an actual

others small sum to a recognized charity that has been shown to be effective in saving lives in developing countries. We predicted that such donation would be negatively correlated with more ‘utilitarian’ responses to sacrificial dilemmas while positively correlated with endorsement of characteristic utilitarian views in the new ‘greater good’ vignettes. 253 American participants were again recruited online using Amazon MTurk and were paid $0.50 for their time. Participants were again excluded from analysis (N = 21) if they failed an attention check or completed the survey in too short a time (<250 s). The total number of participants included in data analysis was 232 (117 females; Mage = 38, SD = 13.41). To avoid potential order effects, questions were presented in a random order. As in previous studies, participants completed the four personal moral dilemmas (the personal ‘other-beneficial’ dilemmas used in Studies 2 and 3), filled in the measure of primary psychopathy, and reported demographic information.

The effects of KRG treatment on cell viability were determined by MTT assays to assess mitochondrial function [22]. SK-N-SH cells were seeded in 96 well-plate and incubated with KRG (1mg/mL) for 48 h and subsequently treated with 0.5mM H2O2 for 2 h. Next, RPMI medium containing MTT dye (2 mg/mL) was added to cell cultures, and plates were incubated

for 1 h at 37°C with 5% CO2. Supernatants were buy Navitoclax then removed, 150 μl of dimethyl sulfoxide was added to wells for 15 min to solubilize liberated formazan, and absorbance was read at 540 nm with a plate reader. Experiments were performed in triplicate. Cells were washed with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), harvested, and collected by centrifugation. Cell pellets were lysed in radioimmunoprecipitation assay buffer containing 50mM Tris-Cl pH 7.4, 0.5% sodium deoxycholate, 0.1% sodium dodecyl sulfate, 150mM NaCl, 1mM ethylenediaminetetra-acetic acid, 1mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, and 1× protease inhibitor cocktail. Protein concentrations in samples were determined by Bradford assays, and 30–40 μg of protein from each sample were resolved on 12.5% sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis gels. Samples were transferred to polyvinylidene difluoride membranes (Millipore, Billerica, MA, USA), which were blocked on a shaker at room temperature

for 2–3 h Epigenetics Compound Library in Tris-buffered saline with 0.1% Tween-20 (T-TBS) containing 7% skim milk. Membranes were then washed three times with T-TBS and incubated overnight with primary antibodies at 4°C. Primary antibodies recognizing human ER-β (sc-53494), bcl-2 (sc-7382), p-p53 (sc-101762), PI3K-p110 (sc-7189), Akt (sc-8312), and p-Akt (sc-7985-R) were purchased from Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc. Primary antibodies recognizing β-actin and anti-caspase-3 were obtained from Sigma–Aldrich and Cell Signaling Technology (Beverley, MA, USA), respectively. Subsequently, membranes were washed 4 times with T-TBS and incubated for 1 h at room temperature with horseradish peroxidase-conjugated anti-rabbit or anti-mouse

secondary antibodies (Sigma–Aldrich). Membranes were washed in T-TBS and proteins of interest were detected using the Power Optic-ECL Western blotting Detection reagent (Animal Genetics Inc., Phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase Gyeonggi-do, Korea). Statistical differences between group medians from three independent experiments were analyzed by analysis of variance. Differences were considered statistically significant in cases where p < 0.05. Previously, we showed that ER-β expression is inhibited by oxidative stress and upregulated following exposure to KRG [17]. ER-β is an upstream regulator of apoptosis [23] and [24]. Here, we examined whether KRG inhibits oxidative stress-induced apoptosis via ER-β upregulation (Fig. 1). ER-β expression was blocked by transfecting SK-N-SH cells with siER-β prior to treating cells with 0.5mM H2O2 to cause oxidative stress.

Annual rainfall ranges check details from frontal Himalayan values of almost 200 cm to only ∼23 cm on the Indus plain, and even lower values (∼9 cm) over the Indus Delta. Tectonics control

the container valley geometry of the Indus, and the main course of the Indus migrated to a generally more westward located course over the past 5000 years (Kazmi, 1984). The legendary Saraswati River, whose probable ancient course in the Thar Desert is marked by numerous abandoned archeological sites, may have once supplemented the Indus Delta (Oldham, 1887, Oldham, 1893, Stein, 1942, Lal and Gupta, 1984, Mughal, 1997 and Giosan et al., 2012). Rather than being an effect of Saraswati’s loss, we speculate that a westward migration of the Indus course may have a more deep seated cause, possibly associated with slow flexural uplift of the central Indian plateau

(Bilham et al., 2003). The delta’s climate is arid sub-tropical; the river mouth is located almost in the tropics, at 24° N 67°30′ E. The present Indus Delta is 17,000 km2; the active tidal flat area is ∼10,000 km2. The delta once hosted the world’s largest arid mangrove forest (Inam et al., 2007). Warm coastal waters (22 °C on average) and summer tidal inundation result in salt deposits (Memon, 2005). The tidal range is 2.7 m (Giosan et al., 2006). Swampy areas on the delta are restricted to areas near tidal channels and coastal areas that undergo tidal flooding. Although the Indus http://www.selleckchem.com/products/ve-822.html Phosphoglycerate kinase Delta receives high deep-water wave energy, attenuation on the shallow shelf results in lower wave energy at the coast than is typical for wave-dominated deltas (Wells and Coleman, 1984). Wave measurements offshore Karachi at 20 m water-depth show a mean significant wave height during the summer southwest monsoon (May–September) of ∼1.8 m with a mean period of 9 s (Rizvi et al., 1988). During the winter, with offshore-directed monsoon winds (October–April), significant wave height

is ∼1.2 m with a period of 6.5 s (Rizvi et al., 1988). Wave-driven sediment transport redistributes river-delivered sediments along the deltaic coast (Wells and Coleman, 1984 and Giosan et al., 2006). Recorded regional history extends back several thousand years (including annals from the time of Alexander the Great c. 325 BC). Embracing ∼2 millennia prior, humans certainly modified the landscape: the population of the Harappan culture is estimated at ∼5 million at peak, with ∼1000 major settlements in what is now Pakistan. However, we postulate these modifications are relatively minor compared to changes from 1869 onwards when artificial levees and great modern irrigation systems became established, population grew from ∼25 million people to the present ∼188 million (UN, 2012), and the Indus ceased to transport large quantities of freshwater and sediment to the delta and the sea. We here describe natural processes occurring in the presence of humans, but not so greatly altered by them. The Indus floodplain (Fig. 1 and Fig.

In particular, we are looking at how changes in riparian vegetation can alter the flux of one nutrient, silica, see more in rivers. Rivers are the primary source of silicon to coastal ocean ecosystems, where it is often a limiting nutrient for important groups of phytoplankton – like diatoms and radiolarians – that are the foundation of aquatic food webs. Declines in riverine input of bioavailable silica to coastal ecosystems, in combination with increases in riverine discharge of phosphorus and nitrogen, have been shown to limit diatom growth and allow ‘undesirable’ types of algae to flourish

(Garnier et al., 2010, Lane et al., 2004, Officer and Ryther, 1980 and Smayda, 1990). Bioavailable silica, hereafter Si, includes dissolved silica (DSi) and amorphous particles of silica (ASi) that are relatively soluble,

e.g., siliceous diatom frustules, sponge spicules, and terrestrial plant phytoliths. Mineral silicates like quartz sand and clays are relatively insoluble, and thus are a less significant source of Si to aquatic ecosystems. In recent years, studies have shown that terrestrial plants play a larger TSA HDAC mouse role in the global silica cycle than had been previously acknowledged (e.g., Conley, 2003, Meunier et al., 2008 and Vandevenne et al., 2012). Specifically, those studies

found that terrestrial vegetation can use and store significant amounts of silica. We surmised that when vegetation is located directly within a river channel, it will also have a substantial impact on silica. This study took place on the Platte River (Nebraska, United States), where an accidental experiment has been underway for more than a century. In the 1900s, river discharge was reduced for agricultural irrigation, leading to an incursion of native selleck screening library vegetation into newly exposed areas of riverbed and the formation of vegetated islands. In 2002, a non-native, invasive grass, Phragmites australis (common reed), first appeared in the river and within just a few years infested >500 km of river corridor ( R. Walters, pers. comm., 2010). Due to its dense growth habit, Phragmites was more effective than the native vegetation at slowing flows and causing fine sediment deposition. Furthermore, Phragmites biomass is relatively rich in silica relative to other plant species ( Struyf et al., 2007b), making it an effective “Si-bioengineer” ( Viaroli et al., 2013). The combination of Phragmites-generated biomass and its shedding onto stable islands could cause Si to continuously accumulate and thus deprive the flow of its equilibrium concentration.

, 2011). Roesch et al. (2009) reported that nucleus accumbens neurons integrate information about the value of an expected reward with features of the motor output (i.e., response speed or choice) that occur during decision making. DA release may set a threshold for worthwhile cost expenditures, and under some signaling pathway circumstances may provide an opportunistic drive for exploitation of resources (Fields et al., 2007; Gan et al., 2010; Beeler et al., 2012). This suggestion is consistent with the proposed involvement of accumbens

DA in the behavioral economics of instrumental behavior, particularly in terms of cost/benefit decision making (Salamone et al., 2007, 2009). As stated above, organisms typically are separated from primary motivational stimuli or goals by obstacles Olaparib ic50 or constraints. Another way of saying this is that the process of engaging in motivated behavior requires that organisms overcome the “psychological distance” between themselves and motivationally relevant

stimuli. The concept of psychological distance is an old idea in psychology (e.g., Lewin, 1935; Shepard, 1957; Liberman and Forster, 2008) and has taken on many different theoretical connotations in different areas of psychology (e.g., experimental, social, personality, etc.). In the present context, it is simply used as a general reference to the idea that objects or events are often not directly present or experienced, and therefore organisms are separated along multiple dimensions

ID-8 (e.g., physical distance, time, probability, instrumental requirements) from these objects or events. In various ways, mesolimbic DA serves as a bridge that enables animals to traverse the psychological distance that separates them from goal objects or events. Multiple investigators have phrased this in diverse ways or emphasized different aspects of the process (Everitt and Robbins, 2005; Kelley et al., 2005; Salamone et al., 2005, 2007, 2009; Phillips et al., 2007; Nicola, 2010; Lex and Hauber, 2010; Panksepp, 2011; Beeler et al., 2012; see Figure 2), but many of the functions in which accumbens DA has been implicated, including behavioral activation, exertion of effort during instrumental behavior, Pavlovian to instrumental transfer, responsiveness to conditioned stimuli, event prediction, flexible approach behavior, seeking, and energy expenditure and regulation, are all important for facilitating the ability of animals to overcome obstacles and, in a sense, transcend psychological distance. Overall, nucleus accumbens DA is important for performing active instrumental responses that are elicited or maintained by conditioned stimuli (Salamone, 1992), for maintaining effort in instrumental responding over time in the absence of primary reinforcement (Salamone et al.

, 1996a, Steriade et al., 1996b, Contreras and Steriade, 1997 and Destexhe et al., 1999). Coupling of slow-wave oscillations was found to occur over large distances, even

between widely separate cortical areas, and to involve subcortical regions such as thalamus or striatum (Amzica and Steriade, 1995, Contreras and Steriade, 1997, Destexhe et al., 1999 and Volgushev et al., 2011). Faster cortical oscillations were spatially much more restricted in their coherence (Steriade et al., 1996b and Destexhe et al., 1999), but they were also coupled with ongoing fast rhythms in the thalamus (Steriade et al., 1996a). Interestingly, coherence of slow rhythms was temporally sustained, while coupling of beta and gamma activity strongly fluctuated over time (Destexhe

et al., 1999). Importantly, coupling in all frequency bands could occur with phase lags close to zero (Steriade et al., 1996b and Contreras http://www.selleckchem.com/products/Adriamycin.html and Steriade, 1997). Optical imaging studies using voltage-sensitive dyes produced similar results, revealing large-scale spatial Tariquidar order coupling of ongoing oscillations that was particularly widespread for low frequencies (Arieli et al., 1996). A study of ICMs in the visual cortex of awake monkeys (Leopold et al., 2003) investigated coupling both for the phase of ongoing oscillations and for their amplitude envelopes (cf. Figure 2B). Across the array of implanted electrodes, phase coupling decreased with increasing spatial separation and was inversely Guanylate kinase related to the frequency. Interestingly, a different pattern was revealed for the amplitude envelope correlations. Envelopes showed predominantly slow correlations (<0.1 Hz), which achieved very high values even over large distances (Leopold et al., 2003). This was particularly true for the amplitude envelopes of gamma-band oscillations that, in terms of their phase, showed much weaker coupling

across distance. This seems interesting because states of global synchronization in the brain are typically associated with lower frequencies such as slow-wave oscillations or delta or alpha waves (Destexhe et al., 1999 and Supp et al., 2011). In the human brain, resting state dynamics has been explored using EEG or MEG mainly in the context of neuropsychiatric disorders (see below) and studies focusing on phase or envelope ICMs using these methods in the healthy brain have remained scarce. Envelope ICMs have been studied using intracranial recordings during presurgical clinical testing in epilepsy patients (Nir et al., 2008, He et al., 2008, Jerbi et al., 2010 and Keller et al., 2013). Simultaneous recordings of unit activity and LFPs from left and right auditory cortex revealed strongly correlated fluctuations of firing rate and LFP power envelopes across the hemispheres (Nir et al., 2008).